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Where a Jewish couple make 'aliyah' to Israel, could the wife have a problem returning abroad with the children, if the marriage breaks down?

Very possibly, if the children become 'habitually resident' in Israel, and her husband/their father objects. If she returned overseas with the children without his consent, she could face child abduction proceedings. To relocate abroad with them again legally, she would either have to negotiate with him and make  a court-authorised agreement dealing with the issue and ensuring his visitation rights or,  if he was adamant in his objections, she would have to apply to court in Israel, for custody of the children and permission to relocate back abroad with them.